After the Roman Empire fell apart into two parts: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire), various Byzantine emperors attempted to reunite the former Roman Empire. Both Rome and the surrounding areas, together called the Papal or Papal State, came under the leadership of the Byzantine Empire. But the relationship between the Byzantine emperor and the pope was anything but cordial. The Pope eventually sought help from the king of the Frankish Empire, resulting in the Papal States being added to the Frankish Empire. After the collapse of the Frankish Empire, Otto the Great reestablished ties with the Pope, after which the Pope crowned him Emperor of the (Holy) Roman Empire.
Contents
- Background
- Christianity in the late fifth and early sixth centuries
- Christianity in the late sixth and early seventh centuries
- Christianity in the seventh and early eighth centuries
- Christianity at the end of the eighth century
- Christianity in the early ninth century
- Christianity (late) ninth century and tenth century
Background
When Emperor Theodosius I (circa 346 – 395) died at the end of the fourth century, the Roman Empire was finally split in two. His one son became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire (which later became known as the Byzantine Empire) and his other son became emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
The Roman Empire falls apart
The border in the former Roman Empire was drawn between the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East. At the same time as the West and the East grew apart, there also arose an alienation between Christians in both areas. Both developed their own views on Christianity and Christology, creating a ‘Western’ and ‘Eastern’ Christianity. While the Eastern Roman Empire managed to grow into a moderate nation, with Constantinople as its capital, the Western Roman Empire, with Ravenna as its capital, fell apart in the mid-fifth century. Various Eastern Roman emperors then attempted to recapture the disintegrated Western Roman Empire, but only a few were (partially) successful.
Christianity in the late fifth and early sixth centuries
At the end of the fifth century, Justinian I (482 or 483 – 565) was crowned emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire and his first mission was to reunite the former Roman Empire.
The Gothic War
In the year 535, Emperor Justinian I started the Gothic War (535 – 554) with the aim of expelling the many Germanic tribes that had invaded the former Western Roman Empire. During the nineteen years that the war lasted, the emperor managed to reconquer (modern) Italy and North Africa, making these areas officially part of the Eastern Roman Empire again. In order to justify his presence in Italy, the Christian Justinian contacted the Pope of Rome and strengthened ties between the two parties.
Chalcedonians and Monophysites
During the reign of Emperor Justinian I, there was a conflict between the Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire. This conflict had arisen after the Council of Chalcedon in the year 451, but was still dragging on. At the Council of Chalcedon a confession of faith had been drawn up stating that Christ had two natures; one divine and one human. The Christians who accepted this creed were called Chalcedonians, those who did not and held that Christ had one nature; namely, a god-human, were called Monophysites.
Council of Constantinople II
In the hope of putting an end to this discussion and bringing the Monophysites back into the church, Emperor Justinian I organized the Council of Constantinople II in the year 553. This put the then Pope of Rome, Vigilius (date of birth unknown – 555), in a difficult position. He was expected to support the emperor in retrieving the Monophysites, but this would have brought him into conflict with his (Western) supporters. The emperor wanted to have the so-called Three Chapters condemned in favor of the Monophysites, but this displeased the Chalcedonians. Ultimately, the Pope drew the short straw, the Three Chapters were condemned and the ‘Western’ and ‘Eastern’ Christians became a step further apart, just like the Pope and the Eastern Roman Emperor.
Christianity in the late sixth and early seventh centuries
Unfortunately, all the work of Emperor Justinian was undone after his death when the Lombards managed to conquer large parts of what is now Italy. Only the Exarchate of Ravenna and the city of Rome managed to keep the Lombards out and therefore remained part of the Eastern Roman Empire.
Gregory the Great
At the end of the sixth century, Gregory the Great (c. 540 – 604) was appointed pope and was of great importance to Rome. When the Lombards approached Rome and the Pope asked for help from the Eastern Roman Emperor, his request was rejected. Pope Gregory then decided to negotiate with the Lombards himself and even made friends with the Christian wife of the Lombard king. Under the leadership of Pope Gregory, Christianization also began in England from where Christianity was then spread to the mainland of present-day Europe. Finally, Pope Gregory also expanded the power of the pope and the bishops, laying the foundation for the current church leadership.
Power struggle between the emperor and the pope
Since Rome was again led by the Eastern Roman emperor, it was customary for a new pope to be elected with the emperor’s consent. But in the year 649, Rome broke with this tradition by (independently) electing Martin I (circa 600 – 655) as pope. The then emperor, Constans II Pogonatos (630 – 668), felt ignored and took revenge by having the Lateran Palace (the Pope’s residence) plundered. Constant II also demanded that Pope Martin I agree to the ‘Ekthesis’ (monothelite confession of faith), but he in turn refused. This caused tensions between the emperor and the pope to rise so high that the relationship between the two parties was seriously damaged.
Council of Constantinople III
Monotheletism was also called monoenergism because its adherents believed that Christ had two souls, but only one will (monotheletism) or one energy (monoenergism). This is in contrast to the Church, which believed that Christ had two natures, one divine and one human. As Monotheletism became increasingly popular – especially in imperial circles – Emperor Constantine IV (652 – 685) decided to organize the Council of Constantinople III in the year 680. The emperor hoped to renew ties with the pope through this council, but since Monotheletism was rejected during the council, the relationship between the pope and the emperor remained tense in the years that followed.
Christianity in the seventh and early eighth centuries
While the Western Roman Empire had already fallen apart at the end of the fifth century, the Eastern Roman Empire, now called the Byzantine Empire, only faced a serious threat in the seventh century in the form of the Arabs.
Rise of Islam
At the beginning of the seventh century the Arabs approached the borders of the Byzantine Empire and by the beginning of the eighth century they had conquered large parts of the Empire. The Arabs had conquered the Levant, Egypt, North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula and in these areas they introduced a new faith; the Islam. The initially Christian population converted to the new religion, whether or not under duress, as a result of which the Christians in these areas were ‘replaced’ by Muslims.
Iconoclasm
At the beginning of the eighth century, Christianity was threatened not only by Islam, but also by a new movement called iconoclasm. Since the then Emperor Leo III (circa 675 – 741) was himself a great supporter of iconoclasm, he did everything he could to ban the veneration of icons. Diametrically opposed to the iconoclasts stood the iconodules, mainly citizens and church administrators who were in favor of the veneration of icons. It eventually came to a clash between the Pope and the Emperor, when the former refused to lend Emperor Leo III money to continue his war against the Arabs. Emperor Leo then decided to confiscate all papal possessions and subsequently brought them under the administration of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Second Council of Nicaea
Under Emperor Constantine V (718 – 775), tensions between both parties rose so high that the emperor decided to organize a council where iconoclasm was ‘approved’. Because no envoys from the Church were present during this council, the council was not accepted by the Church and the iconodules therefore continued their struggle. In the year 780, the nine-year-old Constantine IV (771 – 797) was crowned emperor, but because he was still a minor, his mother, Irene (752 – 803) acted as regent. Since Irene was secretly an iconoclast, she decided to organize the Second Council of Nicaea to have the Church make a ruling on iconoclasm and this time the bishops decided to condemn iconoclasm. According to them, it was allowed to venerate icons of Christ, Mary and other saints (Greek: douleia), but it was not allowed to worship these icons (Greek: latreia). Worship was for God alone. After the Second Council of Nicea, the icons were restored.
Christianity at the end of the eighth century
By the mid-eighth century, Rome was threatened from all sides. The Arabs had invaded the Frankish Empire and the Lombards had managed to capture the Exarchate of Ravenna.
Cooperation
In the mid-eighth century, Pope Stephen II (date of birth unknown – 757) was up to his lips, because the Lombards had managed to capture the Exarchate of Ravenna and were now on their way to Rome. Pope Stephen II did not have to expect help from the then Byzantine emperor, because relations between both parties were still tense, so the pope decided to turn to another monarch. Since the Frankish king, Pepin the Short (714 – 768), had also managed to drive out the Arabs, Pope Stephen placed the fate of Rome in Pepin’s hands. King Pepin subsequently managed to conquer a large area around Rome from the Lombards, after which he donated the conquered areas to the Pope. With these donations a new basis for the Papal (Church) State was formed.
The Pope crowns the Emperor
Charlemagne (747 or 748 – 814) succeeded Pepin the Short as king of the Franks and, like his predecessor, Charlemagne also got along well with the then pope. Charlemagne not only protected Pope Leo III (date of birth unknown – 816) after an attempt had been made on the pope’s life, he also ensured that Pope Leo could safely return to Rome in the year 800. Rome to resume his duties. In gratitude for this, Pope Leo decided to crown King Charles as Emperor of the (medieval) Western Roman Empire and with this coronation created a competitor for the Byzantine Empire and the Byzantine Emperor. The Byzantine emperor did not thank Pope Leo for his choice to crown Emperor Charles.
Christianity in the early ninth century
The ninth century was a troubled period for Christianity. A new iconoclasm broke out in the East and a discussion arose within the Church about the Eucharist and the doctrine of predestination .
Pseudo-isidoric decretals
During the years 813 and 843, a new iconoclasm broke out in the east, causing Eastern and Western Christianity to grow further apart. Also the so-called pseudo-isidoric decretals; a set of papal letters stating that the pope held both ecclesiastical and secular power emerged during this period. Since the author of the letters was unknown, the letters were attributed to the fictional person Isidorus Mercator. Since the letters stated that the power of the pope was above the power of the monarch, tensions between the pope and the Byzantine emperor increased again.
The Eucharist
In the ninth century, discussion arose within the church about the doctrine of the Eucharist. The Benedictine monk and Frankish theologian, Radbertus Paschasius (785 – 865), stated that the bread and wine consumed during the Eucharist essentially changed the body of Christ. Diametrically opposed to Radbertus stood the Frankish theologian and Benedictine monk, Ratramnus of Corbie (date of birth unknown – circa 686). This was precisely the opinion that the Eucharist was thought of Christ’s mystical body, which was something different from Christ’s historical body that was received by him in a spiritual way. The Church eventually chose to reject the teaching of Ratramnus and Radbertus’ teaching became known as the ‘doctrine of transubstantiation’.
Predestination doctrine
In addition to the discussion about the Eucharization, there was also a discussion about the doctrine of predestination; God’s decision to create and maintain creation. As well as the destiny of every person and the related election. The Saxon theologian and monk, Godschalk of Orbais (c. 808 – between 866 and 870) disagreed with the position taken by the Church and developed the doctrine of double predestination; God has already determined in advance which people he will choose and which he will reject. The doctrine of double predestination was rejected by the Church and Godschalk was convicted of heresy.
Christianity (late) ninth century and tenth century
At the end of the ninth and beginning of the tenth century, the Paulicians managed to found various communities and an attempt was made to introduce the Slavic liturgy in the Great Moravian Empire. Otto the Great came to power in the mid-tenth century and decided to renew ties with the Pope of Rome.
The Paulicians
The Paulicians were Christians who believed in Adoptianism; Jesus had been just an ordinary person at birth, but because of his exemplary life, he was chosen by God to be accepted (adopted) by Him as His Son after his baptism. Particularly in the ninth and tenth centuries, the Paulicians managed to gather many followers in the Byzantine Empire and between the years 844 and 871 they even founded an independent state in eastern Asia Minor. When this state collapsed at the end of the ninth century, many Paulicians found refuge in Islamic Syria. The Paulicians who remained in the Byzantine Empire were forced to move to Bulgaria at the end of the tenth century by the then Byzantine emperor to function as a buffer in exchange for religious freedom.
Introduction of Christianity into the Slavic vernacular
At the end of the ninth century, the monks and brothers Cyril (827 or 828 – 869) and Methodius (between 815 and 820 – 885) attempted to introduce the Slavic liturgy into the Great Moravian Empire (modern-day Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary). Unfortunately for the brothers, the Slavic liturgy did not prevail at that time over the Latin liturgy, which had already been introduced by Western missionaries several years earlier. At the beginning of the tenth century, the Eastern Church started the Christianization of Serbia and Bulgaria, this time successfully introducing the Slavic liturgy. At the end of the tenth century, the Empire of Kiev (current Russia) also decided to convert to Eastern Christianity, partly due to the Slavic liturgy. However, the Christianization that started in Denmark and Sweden during this period failed, because the Vikings were in charge in this area.
The Iron Age
The tenth century was also called an Iron Age because it was generally a period of misery and violence. During this period, the number of popes alternated rapidly because the Frankish Empire fell apart after the death of King Charles the Fat (839 – 888). The areas that had belonged to the Frankish Empire fell into the hands of local rulers and for the Papal State (including Rome) this meant that they came under the administration of the Counts of Tusculum. For the next sixty years, the counts of Tusculum determined who would become pope, starting with Pope Sergius III (c. 860 – 911) and ending with Pope John XII (c. 937 – 964). The Iron Age came to an end when Otto the Great (912 – 973) managed to dethrone the king of Italy and re-established ties with Rome. Pope John the granting of the Papal State to the Pope and the Emperor’s commitment to protect the Papal State. However, the Diploma Ottonianum did mean that in the future the Pope had to be sworn in by the Emperor of the Roman Empire.