This article discusses the development of autonomy in adolescents. The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the Separation-Individuation Theory (SIT) are discussed. Two important aspects of autonomy in adolescence are independence and voluntary functioning.
The umbrella concept of autonomy: independence versus voluntary functioning.
There are conflicting views regarding the conceptualization and role of autonomy during adolescence :
- On the one hand, autonomy is defined from the separation-individuation theory (SIT) as independence or separation, referring to:
- The increasing interpersonal distance between the adolescent and his parents.
- The fact that young people are increasingly making decisions independently, without their parents.
- On the other hand, from Self-Determination Theory (SDT), autonomy is conceptualized as voluntary functioning: the tendency to make decisions based on authentic personal values and interests and with a sense of choice and free will.
Autonomy as independence or separation
The development of autonomy during adolescence involves a twofold task, in which adolescents first emotionally detach themselves from their parents (separation) and then gradually take more responsibility for themselves in order to stand on their own two feet, whereby they no longer rely on on their parents (individuation or independence).
The relationship between parents and adolescents is characterized by a normal conflictual condition, which leads to cutting the bond with the parents. They focus on peers. This separation process is initiated by the sexual maturation that adolescents undergo, during which the instinctive life starts to focus on relationships with peers.
According to Blos (1979), separation or breaking away from parents is mainly intrapsychic and emotional. Instead of the parents, sports or music idols can arise (idolatry). However, this separation process does not run smoothly for all adolescents.
- Some experience a void between their old and new bonds. Can cause emotional problems (depression).
- Some try to fill the void left by the de-idealization of their parents by almost slavishly submitting to certain ideologies, movements or even sects (massification).
- Some will reverse previous glorifying feelings toward parents. This can manifest itself through:
- passive forms of communication such as indifference.
- Being actively expressed through resistance and direct open opposition against the parents (rebellion). This can result in externalizing behavior problems.
Successful individuation is mainly reflected in increased behavioral independence.
Autonomy as voluntary or self-determined functioning
The development towards autonomy is considered one of the most important expressions of the functioning of the self. As behavioral regulations and beliefs become more internalized and aligned with the self, the behavior in question will be performed with a greater sense of autonomy or psychological freedom. One can fully support the activity and the reason(s) for exhibiting that behavior: it presupposes a sense of agency: the feeling that you direct and regulate your behavior in a way that is true to the self, which therefore belongs to you fits (= basic psychological need in the life of every person).
Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation:
- Behaviors are intrinsically motivated when performed because they are interesting and engaging in themselves and thus provide inherent satisfactions. This is the prototype of autonomously motivated behavior: completely free and spontaneous.
- Extrinsic motivation refers to performing an activity to achieve an outcome outside of the activity itself.
Active internalization is the process by which individuals actively transform certain externally provided beliefs, attitudes or behavioral regulations into personal values or behavioral styles. This process contains four stages:
- No internalization (so external regulation)
- Partial internalization: also called introjection, where one puts pressure on oneself to perform the activity. It is a source of inner conflict and tension (such as avoiding feelings of shame, guilt or fear). This also includes: doing something to increase self-esteem or to be proud.
- With almost complete internalization: regulation of behavior takes place through identification. The behavior is experienced as personally relevant.
- Full internalization: full integration. In this case, the young person experiences his behavior as spontaneous and completely voluntary.
Two definitions of autonomy
There are three fundamental differences between the two approaches (between ZDT and SIT). According to ZDT, autonomous functioning means: the freedom to make choices based on one’s own needs, values, interests, so that one acts in a more voluntary manner. Within the SIT, autonomy is reactive in nature, and within the SDT it is rather reflective in nature. People reflect on their own actions and, through increased self-awareness, try to act better according to what they find meaningful or interesting for themselves (intrinsic motivation). Autonomy within SIT also refers to a relationship (between parent and child), while autonomy within SDT refers to a characteristic of a person. Secondly, it appears that independence from parents is relatively separate from voluntary functioning. It can also happen under pressure. Kagitcibasi (2005) places this dichotomy between (in)dependent and voluntary functioning in a cross-cultural perspective. She describes autonomy using two dimensions:
- The first refers to the interpersonal distance from others and ranges from closeness to separation, where separation refers to strong independence.
- The second is agency (voluntary in ZDT). The ends of agency are autonomy (self-governance) and heteronomy (functioning under external pressure).
Third: the connection with relational connectedness. In SIT, independence and connectedness are seen as two ends of the same continuum. So increasing independence is simultaneously accompanied by decreasing connectedness. This is accompanied by reduced quality of the parent-child relationship. Adolescents need to find a balance in this. Within the SDT it is emphasized that autonomy and relational connectedness are not the ends of the same continuum but rather two important basic needs that mutually reinforce each other.
Development of autonomy
Autonomy as separation or breaking away from parents (SIT)
Blos and Levy-Warren argue that increasing separation from parents during adolescence is a normative aspect (occurring in all young people) of development, a logical consequence of biological, cognitive and emotional development during puberty.
- Physical development gives adolescents a different view of themselves, and also of their parents.
- Due to increasing cognitive skills, the adolescent thinks not only in terms of facts but also in terms of possibilities. As a result, the adolescent learns to see himself and his parents as separate people, each with their own ideas and views.
- Through increasing knowledge of emotions, young people learn that parents are not the best suited to help them with their emotional or other problems in all circumstances. They begin to seek more social support from friends.
There is also an increase in emotional independence in early adolescence. After this, stabilization takes place. Girls become more emotionally detached from their parents at a young age . Boys start a little later, but go through the process a little faster.
Behavioral independence is measured by assessing whether there is a unilateral parental decision, a joint decision or a unilateral decision by the adolescent. This increasing behavioral independence is not necessarily accompanied by increased conflict between parents and young people. Girls and boys become more behaviorally independent at the same age and at the same rate.
Generally speaking, young people first develop some emotional independence before becoming more behaviorally independent. The development of behavioral independence is a normative developmental task for all adolescents and is more similar across cultures than we might expect.
Autonomy as voluntary or self-determined functioning (As in ZDT)
If autonomy refers to voluntary functioning (SDT), then the development of autonomy is not only crucial for adolescents but for everyone and therefore for every age. Autonomy development in SDT is therefore not a developmental task but a life task. So according to the ZDT there is no specific development of autonomy in adolescence. Autonomy is a natural tendency.
Autonomy as a source of well-being and a basis for later development
Autonomy is seen as a desirable characteristic that can contribute to well-being and appropriate behavior.
Consequences of separation and developing independence
According to the SIT, letting go of the internalized images of your parents is an important step on the road to independence. This leaves room for emotional connections with other people. Intimacy requires separation-individuation.
Independence is a sign of increasing maturity and development towards an adult lifestyle. However, research shows that separation and independence are not unconditionally associated with well-being and adaptive behavior of adolescents. Strong emotional independence was found to be associated with various negative aspects of psychosocial adjustment in adolescents, such as a lack of trust in parents and in themselves, more social anxiety and problem behavior. Adolescents who often make decisions all by themselves experience more problem behavior later. Declaration:
- Strong independence is characteristic of adolescents who do not have a good or secure relationship with their parents. Independence makes adolescents want to resist their parents. So: it is more of a rebellious reaction than a development towards maturity.
- The timing of the development. Strong independence at a young age could have negative consequences. A gradual development of independence is better for young people.
Consequences of self-determined or voluntary functioning
In SDT, autonomy is seen as an innate basic psychological need. Satisfaction with this is associated with greater well-being and better behavioral adjustment. Behavior based on introjected and internalized motives can be sustained longer than behavior determined by external motives. According to the ZDT, external and internal pressure will not only result in a lack of tenacity, but also undermine learning, performance and well-being in general.
Contexts that contribute to the development of autonomy, or hinder that development
Processes in the family play an important role (from the perspective of autonomy as independence and from the perspective of autonomy as voluntary functioning). These influence the relationship between parent and child, the specific parental upbringing style and the dynamics in the family as a whole. However, emphasizing independence appears to have very different effects on the functioning and well-being of children than offering space for voluntary functioning.
Parenting processes from the separation-individuation perspective (SIT)
Research on decisional independence has found that as the frequency of independent decision making by adolescents increases, the adolescent’s independence in making decisions within the family is greater and more tolerated or even encouraged. More space to make independent decisions promotes the development towards more separation and independence. Thus, decision independence within the family is expected to be associated with maturity and with better psychosocial adjustment. But: research has not consistently shown this. We also saw earlier that strong decision independence appears to be associated with a more problematic adjustment. This may be because decision independence often occurs in families with a permissive parenting climate.
Parenting processes from the self-determination perspective (SDT)
In addition to encouraging independence, we can also conceptualize autonomy support as encouraging voluntary functioning with the following components:
- Autonomy-supportive parents are empathetic. This has an affective component and a cognitive component.
- Autonomy-supporting parents will offer as many options as possible where possible and when desired.
- Autonomy-supportive parents will provide meaningful justification when they assign a task that the child would not spontaneously perform. Such an explanation increases the understanding and insight into the necessity of the assigned task, causing the child to perform the task more voluntarily.
The adolescent is more likely to support his or her choices and behaviors, and these are experienced as more personally meaningful and bring with them a sense of psychological freedom.
Parents can encourage independence or dependence in a voluntary or controlling manner.
Influence from outside the family
It is important to look at influences from people and contexts outside the family. Mutual autonomy support in friendship relationships during adolescence is also important. Encouragement of autonomy is associated with a better subjective experience of the relationship and a more secure sense of attachment in the friendship relationship. Teachers are also important. Teachers contribute to autonomous functioning at school through an autonomy-supportive style, while autonomy support from parents is important for autonomous social functioning in the school.