Fallacies are used a lot in the political debates in the House of Representatives that you sometimes see on television. They are wrong, or crooked, reasoning. So arguments are being used that are incorrect.
1. Argumentum ad baculum
Argumentum ad baculum literally means argument to the stick and is also called the fallacy to the stick. It means that an argument is threatening. This can be in open or covert terms.
For example…
If Kim doesn’t participate in a game of goose board this afternoon, she won’t be allowed to play my computer game.
2. Argumentum ad misericordiam
An argumentum ad misericordiam involves the person using it appealing to the pity of another.
For example…
How can you fire me, I’ve been having such a hard time lately!
3. Evasion of the burden of proof
Someone who uses this wrongly presents a position as if it were self-evident, as if it did not need to be defended.
For example…
- Isn’t it obvious that men with a bald head are old?
- You’d have to be crazy not to know that basketball isn’t a real ball sport, right?
4. Shifting the burden of proof
As with the previous fallacy, shifting the burden of proof also means that the person who uses it does everything he can to avoid having to defend his position himself. When shifting the burden of proof, you take advantage of the fact that when someone else is not entirely sure whether he or she agrees with you, you challenge that other person to prove the opposite.
For example…
A Men with bald heads are old.B Well, I don’t know if that’s trueA Then prove that it’s not true!
5. Straw man
Someone who uses this fallacy takes someone else’s point of view, distorts it and then destroys it.
For example…
A We have to be very careful about the practice of euthanasia.B So you’re saying that we shouldn’t allow euthanasia ? Well. blah blah
6. Straw man fictional
Someone assigns an opinion or point of view to someone on the basis of his nationality, job, position, etc. So it is actually making a prejudice public.
For example…
He must be in favor of the introduction of the new tax law, because he is a millionaire.
7. Argumentum ad hominem – direct
Someone who uses an argumentum ad hominem direct says something to someone to insult him, not to say something about the position under discussion.
For example…
It’s only Jan who says that, so it must be nonsense.
8. Argumentum ad hominem – indirect
It is actually about the same thing as the argumentum ad hominem direct, but it is not an insult, but a suspicion.
For example…
Professor Blauw contributed to drawing up the economic policy plan for the next five years. So it will be a solid and useful plan.Blue? Wasn’t he recently in the news in connection with an embezzlement affair?
9. Argumentum ad hominem – tu quoquo
Similar to the previous 2 fallacies, but in this case it is the pot calling the kettle black.
For example…
The minister may want us to travel by public transport, but he also travels by car, right?
10. False authority
Someone is wrongly presented as an expert. Someone who defends a position does not actually have that expertise or has expertise that does not matter.
For example…
I studied Italian, so I am familiar with the Italian temperament like no other
.
11. Hasty generalization
Based on one observation, someone draws a general conclusion.
For example…
That singer’s song is absolutely great, so the rest of his CD must also be a masterpiece .
12. Wrong comparison
Someone who uses this fallacy compares 2 things that cannot be compared at all, comparing apples and oranges.
For example…
The worst antique dealers are those who have their own collection at home. They drive me crazy when they say: I have a book at home that you would like to have. Unfortunately I cannot sell it because it belongs to my private collection.
If an antique dealer collects for himself, he should keep quiet about it to customers. It wouldn’t do if you were standing in front of a seemingly green bean section at Albert Heijn and Mr. Heijn walked up and said: no, there are no green beans, I have them all at home, in my own storage cellar.
13. Fallacy of denial of antecedents
p -> q
p……..
-q
The conclusion of this fallacy does not necessarily have to be true.
For example…
If you sleep with your window open, you will get the flu. I haven’t slept with my window open, so I don’t get a g shout.
14. Fallacy of Consequence Affirmation
Is almost the same as the previous fallacy;
p -> q
q……..
p
For example…
If you sleep with your window open at night, you will get the flu. I have the flu, so I’ve been sleeping with my window open.
15. Post hoc ergo propter hoc
After that, so because of that.
An incorrect connection is made between 2 consecutive events.
For example…
Since this government came into power, employment has increased significantly. So this government has done its job well.
16. Argumentum at ignorantium
Argument from ignorance.
from the fact that you cannot prove something you conclude that it must be true.
For example…
You say that gnomes don’t exist? Then prove that!
17. Circular reasoning
When using this fallacy, the conclusion and argument are identical. Sometimes it takes some time, effort and, above all, a lot of reasoning to see that.
For example…
This car is mine, because I am the owner.
18. Inclined plane
Wrongly assuming that a position, for example on a certain measure, will irrevocably lead to many harmful consequences.
For example…
By legalizing the use of soft drugs, the Netherlands will become a narco-state.
19. False dilemma
It is suggested that you can only choose from 2 things, while that is not the case at all, more choices are possible.
For example…
If you’re not with us, then you’re against us.
20. Argumentum ad populum
The voice of the people; What the majority of the population says is true.
For example…
The spelling is ‘straw doll’ and not ‘straw doll’, because ‘straw doll’ yields the most hits on Google.
21. Declaring a position taboo
Someone who uses this fallacy indicates, as it were, that they do not want to discuss a certain point of view, you simply don’t talk about it.
For example…
Nothing but good things about the dead.
22. Argumentum ad consequentiam
It is not true because it should not be true or It is true because it must be true.
For example…
We can assume that hydrogen bombs will never hit the Netherlands, because our country is so small that nothing would be left of it .
23. Compositional Fallacy
What applies to the parts also applies to the whole.
For example…
Sodium is poisonous, chlorine is poisonous. So sodium chloride is poisonous.
24. Divisional Fallacy
What applies to the whole also applies to the parts. The reverse of the composition fallacy.
For example…
The company has a boring image, so that doesn’t bode well for the employees who work there.
25. Ambiguity Fallacy
Ambiguous, open to multiple interpretations. The argument can be taken in several ways.
For example…
That’s a portrait of Herman.
26. Ignoratio elenchi
The argument of ignoring.
Arguments that remotely have something to do with the subject, but do not directly apply to it.
For example…
A: The question is whether encouraging social housing is the right way to alleviate the housing shortage. B: But you cannot deny that there is a housing shortage!
27. Cum hoc ergo propter hoc.
Sounds like the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy, but this means at the same time, therefore because of it.
For example…
Teenagers eat a lot of chocolate. They often have a lot of pimples. So chocolate causes pimples.
28. Non sequitur
That does not follow.
The conclusion does not reasonably follow from the arguments.
For example…
Conductor: Do you also sit with your feet on the couch at home? Traveler: Do you also cut tickets at home?
29. Contradiction
Various arguments contradict each other or the position.
For example…
Years ago, Jan Vrijman filmed an old lady, whom he asked if she read books to learn from them. She literally said; No, I don’t need to learn anymore, I’m too old for that. I’ve already learned so much. I read because I enjoy it. And you learn something from it. You’re never too old to learn.’